Chapter Sixteen - The West / 第十六章 - 西方

The Universal Laws of Newton and Locke / 牛顿和洛克的普遍定律

William Penn set out to build a colony where everyone was equal. And the people of England demanded that their new king and queen, William and Mary, only pass the laws that the people wanted.

威廉·佩恩开始建立一个人人平等的殖民地。英格兰的人民要求他们的新国王和女王威廉和玛丽，只能通过人民想要的法律。

What happened to the days of knights and castles, when a king could do whatever he wanted, and when lords rode through their estates, commanding the peasants to obey?

骑士和城堡的时代发生了什么？那时国王可以做他想做的任何事，领主骑马穿过他们的庄园，命令农民服从？

In England and in Europe—that part of the world that we often call the West—those days were fading away.

在英格兰和欧洲——我们常常称为西方的世界的那一部分——那些日子正在消失。

The days of kings and lords first began to lose their brightness when philosophers and scientists realized that the ancient Greeks, who had long been held up as the wisest men in the world, were sometimes wrong.

当哲学家和科学家意识到长期被推崇为世界上最智慧的古代希腊人有时也是错误的时，国王和领主的时代首先开始失去光彩。

A hundred years before William Penn and William and Mary, the Italian scientist Galileo had studied the ideas of the ancient scientists Aristotle and Ptolemy. Both men wrote that the sun went around the earth.

在威廉·佩恩和威廉、玛丽之前一百年，意大利科学家伽利略研究了古代科学家亚里士多德和托勒密的想法。两人都写道太阳围绕地球转动。

But Galileo realized that this idea didn't explain his own observations of the sky. He needed a new theory, and he made one: The earth actually goes around the sun! Galileo was one of the first scientists to use the scientific method.

但伽利略意识到这个想法无法解释他自己对天空的观察。他需要一个新的理论，于是他提出了一个：地球实际上围绕太阳转动！伽利略是最早使用科学方法的科学家之一。

Instead of accepting old ideas, he carefully observed the world around him, and then tried to make a theory that would explain his observations.

他没有接受旧的想法，而是仔细观察周围的世界，然后试图建立一个能够解释他的观察的理论。

Almost a hundred years later, in 1642, a weak, sickly baby was born in England. His parents didn't expect him to live—but they named him Isaac anyway, like the baby born to Abraham and Sarah in the Bible.

将近一百年后，在1642年，一个虚弱、体弱多病的婴儿在英格兰出生。他的父母没有指望他能活下来——但他们还是给他取名艾萨克，就像圣经中亚伯拉罕和撒拉生的婴儿一样。

Isaac did live. As a matter of fact, Isaac Newton lived to be eighty-four years old! And he used those eighty-four years to take Galileo's ideas even further.

艾萨克确实活了下来。事实上，艾萨克·牛顿活到了八十四岁！他用这八十四年的时间将伽利略的想法推进得更远。

As he grew, Isaac Newton became more and more curious about how the world worked. He read every book he could find. He did scientific experiments. He tried very hard to turn lead and copper into gold—but he never succeeded!

随着成长，艾萨克·牛顿对世界如何运作变得越来越好奇。他阅读能找到的每一本书。他做科学实验。他非常努力地试图将铅和铜变成金——但他从未成功！

When Isaac was eighteen, the people of England invited Charles II to reclaim the throne. Three years later, Isaac Newton went to study science at the University of Cambridge.

当艾萨克十八岁时，英格兰人民邀请查理二世重新夺回王位。三年后，艾萨克·牛顿去剑桥大学学习科学。

There, he was told to read the ideas of Plato and Aristotle—but Newton thought that the ideas of modern scientists like Galileo and Copernicus were closer to the truth.

在那里，他被要求阅读柏拉图和亚里士多德的思想——但牛顿认为伽利略和哥白尼等现代科学家的想法更接近真理。

In his scientific notebook, Newton wrote, "Amicus Plato amicus Aristoteles magis amica veritas." That is Latin for, "Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my best friend is truth."

在他的科学笔记本中，牛顿写道："Amicus Plato amicus Aristoteles magis amica veritas。"这句拉丁语的意思是："柏拉图是我的朋友，亚里士多德是我的朋友，但我最好的朋友是真理。"

When Cambridge closed down because of the Plague, Isaac Newton went back home. He went on studying the world, trying to figure out why it worked the way it did. While he studied, thought, and wrote, Charles II ruled, grew ill, and then died, and James II came to the throne.

当剑桥因为瘟疫而关闭时，艾萨克·牛顿回到了家。他继续研究世界，试图弄清楚它为什么以这种方式运作。当他学习、思考和写作时，查理二世统治、生病、然后死去，詹姆斯二世登上了王位。

One day, Isaac Newton was sitting beside a window, thinking and staring out into the family apple orchards, when he saw an apple fall to the ground.

一天，艾萨克·牛顿坐在窗户旁边，思考着并凝视着家庭苹果果园，这时他看到一个苹果掉到地面上。

He thought, "Why does it always fall down? Why doesn't the apple ever fall sideways, or up? Some sort of force must be pulling on the apple to make it always fall in exactly the same way!"

他想，"为什么它总是向下掉？为什么苹果从不向侧面或向上掉？一定有某种力在拉着苹果，使它总是以完全相同的方式掉落！"

Newton went on observing, doing experiments, and thinking until he was able to describe the force that pulls on the apple. He called it gravity, from the Latin word grave, which means "heavy."

牛顿继续观察、做实验和思考，直到他能够描述拉着苹果的力。他称之为重力，来自拉丁语grave，意思是"重的"。

This "heavy" force means that large bodies, such as the earth, have a force that pulls objects toward them. Isaac Newton learned that he could predict, using mathematics, how strong that force would be, anywhere in the universe.

这种"重的"力意味着大的物体，如地球，有一种力将物体拉向它们。艾萨克·牛顿了解到他可以使用数学预测这种力在宇宙任何地方有多强。

The next time an apple fell, Newton could tell you exactly how fast it would fall and when it would hit the earth! Newton's new rules, which we now call the laws of gravity, showed that every motion or action in the universe had a law that governed it.

下次苹果掉落时，牛顿可以准确地告诉你它会以多快的速度掉落以及何时会撞击地球！牛顿的新规则，我们现在称之为重力定律，表明宇宙中的每一个运动或动作都有一个法则支配着它。

The universe wasn't a huge, mysterious, magical riddle. Instead, people could figure out—and even predict ahead of time—what would happen. The universe was like a machine that always worked in the same way.

宇宙不是一个巨大、神秘、神奇的谜题。相反，人们可以弄清楚——甚至提前预测——会发生什么。宇宙就像一台总是以相同方式运作的机器。

In 1687, while James II was still on the throne (and growing more and more unpopular for his Catholic ways), Isaac Newton published his ideas in a book called Principia Mathematica, or "Principles of Mathematics."

在1687年，当詹姆斯二世仍在王位上时（因为他的天主教方式而越来越不受欢迎），艾萨克·牛顿在一本名为《数学原理》或"数学原理"的书中发表了他的想法。

Newton's ideas about laws that governed the whole universe didn't just affect other scientists. Other thinkers, such as philosophers (who think about ideas), economists (who think about money and how it works), and political philosophers (who think about the ways countries are governed) began to think that if universal laws governed objects, universal laws also governed people.

牛顿关于支配整个宇宙的定律的想法不仅影响了其他科学家。其他思想家，如哲学家（思考想法的人）、经济学家（思考金钱及其运作方式的人）和政治哲学家（思考国家治理方式的人）开始认为，如果普遍法则支配物体，那么普遍法则也支配人类。

If they could use the scientific method to observe people and make theories about the ways people acted, perhaps those universal laws could be discovered. Then, life would no longer be mysterious. They would no longer need to wonder why one country prospered while another became poor, or why one country won a war while another lost. Universal laws would explain all of these things!

如果他们能够使用科学方法观察人们并对人们的行为方式制定理论，也许那些普遍法则可以被发现。那样，生活将不再神秘。他们将不再需要想知道为什么一个国家繁荣而另一个变得贫穷，或者为什么一个国家赢得战争而另一个失败。普遍法则将解释所有这些事情！

Another Englishman, John Locke, was determined to discover these universal laws. When the English rebelled against Charles I, John Locke was seventeen years old.

另一个英国人，约翰·洛克，决心发现这些普遍法则。当英国人反叛查理一世时，约翰·洛克十七岁。

His father joined the anti-royalist forces, and fought against Charles's royal army during the Civil War. After Charles's execution, John Locke went to study at Oxford.

他的父亲加入了反王室力量，在内战期间与查理的王军作战。查理被处决后，约翰·洛克去牛津学习。

He was supposed to study history and Greek philosophy—but like Isaac Newton, John Locke found these ideas old-fashioned. He wanted to experiment in science and read the new ideas of modern philosophers!

他应该学习历史和希腊哲学——但像艾萨克·牛顿一样，约翰·洛克发现这些想法过时了。他想要在科学中进行实验并阅读现代哲学家的新想法！

When Charles II came back to England, Locke had grown to be a man of twenty-eight. The king's supporters knew that Locke preferred a commonwealth to a king. Locke was afraid that he might be arrested, or even executed! So he left England and visited France, Holland, and other European countries, learning from other scientists and philosophers.

当查理二世回到英格兰时，洛克已经成长为一个二十八岁的男人。国王的支持者知道洛克更喜欢共和国而不是国王。洛克担心他可能会被逮捕，甚至被处决！所以他离开了英格兰，访问了法国、荷兰和其他欧洲国家，向其他科学家和哲学家学习。

He stayed out of England through the reign of James II. When Mary and William came triumphantly to England, John Locke returned to England as part of Mary's royal party.

他在詹姆斯二世统治期间一直待在英格兰之外。当玛丽和威廉胜利地来到英格兰时，约翰·洛克作为玛丽王室团队的一部分回到了英格兰。

Now that England was a constitutional monarchy—meaning that the king and queen themselves had to obey the laws passed by Parliament—John Locke didn't have to worry about being arrested simply because he preferred one form of government to another.

现在英格兰是一个君主立宪制——意味着国王和女王自己也必须遵守议会通过的法律——约翰·洛克不必担心仅仅因为他更喜欢一种政府形式而不是另一种就被逮捕。

Now, he was free to write down the ideas he had been thinking about for the past years. In 1690, the year after he returned to England, John Locke published a book called Two Treatises of Government.

现在，他可以自由地写下他过去几年一直在思考的想法。在1690年，他回到英格兰后的那一年，约翰·洛克出版了一本名为《政府论》的书。

In his book, John Locke explained that he had discovered universal laws that could predict how people should act. Every man and woman, Locke wrote, was equal. Every human being had, by "natural law," the right to seek "life, health, liberty, and possessions."

在他的书中，约翰·洛克解释说他发现了可以预测人们应该如何行动的普遍法则。洛克写道，每个男人和女人都是平等的。每个人根据"自然法"，都有寻求"生命、健康、自由和财产"的权利。

No king could claim that God had given him the divine power to execute his subjects, throw them in jail, or take their property!

没有国王可以声称上帝给了他神圣权力来处决他的臣民、将他们投入监狱或夺取他们的财产！

But Locke added that groups of people gathered together into cities or countries need someone to make and enforce laws. So people should join together in groups and draw up a contract. This contract gives some of them power to rule over others—but the rulers can only have as much power as the people are willing to give them.

但洛克补充说，聚集在城市或国家的人群需要有人制定和执行法律。所以人们应该聚集成团体并起草一份契约。这份契约给了他们中的一些人统治他人的权力——但统治者只能拥有人民愿意给予他们的权力。

Rulers can't take away the "life, health, liberty, and possessions" of their subjects. If they "destroy, enslave, or…impoverish" their subjects, the people can join together, announce that the contract isn't valid any more, throw the rulers out of office, and appoint new rulers.

统治者不能夺走他们臣民的"生命、健康、自由和财产"。如果他们"摧毁、奴役或...使贫穷"他们的臣民，人民可以联合起来，宣布契约不再有效，将统治者赶下台，并任命新的统治者。

"Men under government," Locke wrote, "...[should] have a standing rule to live by, common to every one of that society...and not to be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, arbitrary will of another man." In other words, even a king has to obey the laws—or else he loses his throne!

洛克写道："政府管理下的人们...应该有一个共同的生活准则，对该社会的每个人都是共同的...而不应该受制于另一个人反复无常、不确定、专横的意志。"换句话说，即使是国王也必须遵守法律——否则他就会失去王位！

John Locke also thought that every ruler would be tempted to abuse his power. So he also wrote that a good government would have three parts, like William Penn's colony. One group would make the laws, another group would enforce them, and a third group would be in charge of fighting wars with other countries.

约翰·洛克还认为每个统治者都会受到滥用权力的诱惑。所以他还写道，一个好的政府应该有三个部分，就像威廉·佩恩的殖民地一样。一个团体制定法律，另一个团体执行法律，第三个团体负责与其他国家作战。

That way, no king could ever make laws just for his own good—or start wars simply to make himself richer or more important.

这样，没有国王可以仅仅为了自己的利益制定法律——或者仅仅为了让自己更富有或更重要而发动战争。

Isaac Newton, John Locke, and many other men and women in England and Europe began to accept these ideas about government, and also to believe that universal laws, discovered through observation, governed every part of human life. Today, we often talk about these ideas as "Western ideas." Sometimes we talk about the years when these ideas became popular as the "Enlightenment."

艾萨克·牛顿、约翰·洛克以及英格兰和欧洲的许多其他男男女女开始接受这些关于政府的想法，并且也相信通过观察发现的普遍法则支配着人类生活的每一个部分。今天，我们经常把这些想法称为"西方思想"。有时我们把这些想法变得流行的年代称为"启蒙运动"。

But in the days of John Locke, the eastern countries of the world often did not agree with the West. As a matter of fact, when Japan closed its harbors, one reason was to prevent Enlightenment ideas from coming in—and from encouraging Japanese citizens to question the power of the shogun!

但在约翰·洛克的时代，世界东方国家往往不同意西方的观点。事实上，当日本关闭其港口时，一个原因是为了防止启蒙思想传入——并防止鼓励日本公民质疑幕府将军的权力！

Scientific Farming / 科学农业

It's five o'clock on a cold, dark March morning. Frost covers the stone steps of a farmer's cottage in the south of England; smoke has just begun to rise from the chimney. A huddle of sheep crowd against a stone wall nearby, looking hopefully toward the cottage. Occasionally one baas.

这是三月一个寒冷、黑暗的早晨五点钟。霜覆盖着英格兰南部一个农民小屋的石阶；烟刚开始从烟囱中升起。一群羊挤在附近的石墙边，满怀希望地望向小屋。偶尔有一只咩咩叫。

William Barkely has already been up for an hour. He's emptied the chamber pots, brought in wood, and stoked the fire. His wife Joan is already kneading the day's bread; it will rise near the fire until ready to bake for lunch.

威廉·巴克利已经起床一小时了。他倒空了夜壶，搬进了木头，并生了火。他的妻子琼已经在揉当天的面包；它会在火边发酵，直到准备好为午餐烘烤。

The three children are still sleeping, but Joan is listening for the first cry from baby Matilda. William takes a rope down from the wall and lights his lantern. He's headed out to the cattle barn to slaughter one of the cows for the evening meal.

三个孩子还在睡觉，但琼在听婴儿玛蒂尔达的第一声哭声。威廉从墙上取下一根绳子并点亮他的灯笼。他要去牛棚宰杀一头奶牛作为晚餐。

He's already eaten his breakfast, standing; a piece of yesterday's oat bread, soaked in a dish of ale.

他已经站着吃了他的早餐；一片昨天的燕麦面包，浸在一盘麦酒里。

Far away, in a comfortable London manor, Isaac Newton—now seventy-nine—is still sleeping. In an hour or so, a maid will bring him his morning tea and stoke his bedroom fire. He'll sit up in bed, the blankets wrapped around his shoulders, and drink his tea, waiting for his valet to arrive and lay out his clothes.

在远处，在伦敦舒适的庄园里，现在七十九岁的艾萨克·牛顿还在睡觉。大约一小时后，一个女仆会给他送来晨茶并生起他卧室的火。他会坐在床上，毯子裹在肩膀上，喝着茶，等待他的男仆到来为他摆放衣服。

Once dressed, he'll sit down to a breakfast of grilled fish, dried apples, and fine white bread. His carriage is waiting for him, the coachman huddled on the driver's seat, shivering in the cold morning air.

穿好衣服后，他会坐下来享用烤鱼、干苹果和精制白面包的早餐。他的马车在等他，车夫蜷缩在驾驶座上，在寒冷的晨风中发抖。

When Newton finishes his breakfast, the coachman will take him to the Mitre on Wood Street, a warm and comfortable tavern where he'll preside over a meeting of the Royal Society of scientists.

当牛顿吃完早餐后，车夫会带他去伍德街的米特尔，一个温暖舒适的酒馆，他将在那里主持科学家皇家学会的会议。

After the meeting, he'll dine on sizzling roast beef, cold sage soup, wine, and apple tart, and then he will nap in a leather chair in front of the tavern's roaring fire.

会议结束后，他会享用滋滋作响的烤牛肉、冷鼠尾草汤、葡萄酒和苹果挞，然后他会在酒馆熊熊燃烧的火前的皮椅上小憩。

The life of a wealthy philosopher and scientist seems very different from the life of a hard-working farmer! But although Newton, Locke, and the other thinkers who tried to discover universal laws were wealthy men who could afford to spend their days writing and thinking (rather than working with their hands), the Universal Laws they laid out changed the lives of farmers like William and Joan.

富有的哲学家和科学家的生活似乎与辛勤工作的农民的生活非常不同！但是，尽管牛顿、洛克和其他试图发现普遍法则的思想家是富有的人，能够把时间花在写作和思考上（而不是用手工作），但他们制定的普遍法则改变了像威廉和琼这样的农民的生活。

As William goes through his day, he'll be farming in a different way than his grandfather and great-grandfather. He'll be using new, scientific methods of farming—thanks to the universal laws of nature.

当威廉度过他的一天时，他将以与他的祖父和曾祖父不同的方式耕作。他将使用新的、科学的耕作方法——这要感谢自然的普遍法则。

The idea that laws could be discovered to explain the natural world soon began to change the practical details of everyday life. After all, if the universe was governed by universal laws, and people were governed by universal laws, surely crops and animals were also governed by universal laws? If farmers knew those laws, they could use them to raise larger crops, and healthier animals.

可以发现法则来解释自然世界的想法很快开始改变日常生活的实际细节。毕竟，如果宇宙受普遍法则支配，人们受普遍法则支配，那么农作物和动物肯定也受普遍法则支配？如果农民知道这些法则，他们就可以用它们来种植更大的庄稼和更健康的动物。

William Barkely is getting ready to slaughter a cow so that his family can eat meat. Twenty years earlier, no poor farmer would expect to eat meat in the winter or early spring! But William has plenty of meat for his family—because he knows some of the universal laws that govern plants and animals.

威廉·巴克利正准备宰杀一头牛，这样他的家人就可以吃肉了。二十年前，没有穷农民会指望在冬天或早春吃肉！但威廉有足够的肉给他的家人——因为他知道一些支配植物和动物的普遍法则。

For centuries, farmers had known that fields planted with wheat year after year would give less and less grain. The wheat plants were using up all of the minerals in the soil—and as the minerals disappeared, wheat plants grew small and spindly.

几个世纪以来，农民们知道年复一年种植小麦的田地会产出越来越少的粮食。小麦植物耗尽了土壤中所有的矿物质——随着矿物质的消失，小麦植物变得又小又细。

So farmers would plant wheat one year, barley the next, and then let the fields lie empty the third year, so that the minerals in the soil would return.

所以农民会第一年种小麦，第二年种大麦，然后第三年让田地空置，这样土壤中的矿物质就会恢复。

But when English and Dutch farmers began to investigate the universal laws of plants, they discovered that different kinds of plants use different kinds of minerals. Lord Charles Townshend, an English gentleman farmer with a large estate, came up with a new rotation of crops.

但是当英国和荷兰农民开始研究植物的普遍法则时，他们发现不同种类的植物使用不同种类的矿物质。查尔斯·汤森德勋爵，一个拥有大庄园的英国绅士农民，想出了一种新的作物轮作方法。

Since turnips and clover actually return minerals to the soil, he suggested planting first wheat, then turnips, then barley or oats, and finally clover. Farmers who used this four-year rotation could plant their fields every single year.

由于萝卜和三叶草实际上向土壤返回矿物质，他建议先种小麦，然后种萝卜，然后种大麦或燕麦，最后种三叶草。使用这种四年轮作的农民可以每年都种植他们的田地。

They had more grain—and more food for cattle, since cows liked turnips and clover. Soon, most English farmers were using Townshend's crop rotation—and Townshend had earned himself the nickname "Turnip Townshend."

他们有更多的粮食——以及更多的牛饲料，因为牛喜欢萝卜和三叶草。很快，大多数英国农民都在使用汤森德的作物轮作——汤森德为自己赢得了"萝卜汤森德"的绰号。

Since farmers now had more grain and more cattle food, they could afford to keep larger herds of cattle alive all year round. Now they could eat meat any time of the year!

由于农民现在有更多的粮食和更多的牛饲料，他们可以负担得起全年保持更大的牛群存活。现在他们可以一年中任何时候都吃肉！

William Barkely and his family will eat beef for dinner tonight. After William Barkely prepares his meat to be cooked, he heads over to the sheep pen to feed the flock. William's sheep are big, round ewes with plenty of thick wool. William has spent the last few years carefully breeding his best sheep together, hoping for large, healthy lambs. Now his flock is the finest in the countryside!

威廉·巴克利和他的家人今晚将吃牛肉晚餐。威廉·巴克利准备好要烹饪的肉后，他走到羊圈去喂羊群。威廉的羊是大而圆的母羊，有着厚厚的羊毛。威廉在过去几年里仔细地将他最好的羊繁殖在一起，希望能得到大而健康的羔羊。现在他的羊群是乡村中最好的！

William's grandfather couldn't breed his best sheep together. In his day, farmers didn't have private, fenced-off fields where they could raise crops and put flocks out to pasture. Open fields were owned by towns, and everyone in the town farmed the fields together. Everyone's sheep and cows grazed on common pasture land together.

威廉的祖父不能将他最好的羊繁殖在一起。在他的时代，农民没有私人的、围起来的田地，可以在那里种植作物并让羊群在牧场上放牧。开放的田地归城镇所有，城镇里的每个人都一起耕种田地。每个人的羊和牛都在公共牧场上一起吃草。

But with the new interest in scientific farming and crop rotation, each farmer wanted his own field to till in the most modern way possible. So the English government passed laws called Acts of Enclosure. These Acts divided the common fields up into smaller private fields, each one fenced off.

但是随着对科学农业和作物轮作的新兴趣，每个农民都想要他自己的田地以最现代的方式耕种。所以英国政府通过了称为圈地法的法律。这些法案将公共田地分割成更小的私人田地，每一块都围起来。

Enclosure meant that each farmer could rotate his crops and fertilize his fields—and could control which animals mated together. A sheep farmer could breed only his best sheep. A dairy farmer could breed only the fattest beef cattle and raise more cows ideal for meat.

圈地意味着每个农民可以轮作他的作物并施肥他的田地——并且可以控制哪些动物交配在一起。养羊农民可以只繁殖他最好的羊。奶牛农民可以只繁殖最肥的肉牛并饲养更多适合产肉的牛。

As a matter of fact, one farmer named Robert Bakewell cross-bred the fattest cows from several different herds and created a whole new kind of cow, called the New Leicestershire. This animal put on fat quickly, so that Englishmen could feast on roast beef with plenty of fat gravy all year round!

事实上，一个名叫罗伯特·贝克韦尔的农民杂交了几个不同牛群中最肥的牛，创造了一种全新的牛，叫做新莱斯特郡牛。这种动物很快就能长肥，这样英国人就可以全年享用有大量肥肉汁的烤牛肉！

The Acts of Enclosure didn't please every farmer. When a town enclosed its lands, government officials arrived to divide up the fields. The farmers receiving the fields had to pay the government officials—and they also had to pay for new hedges or stone walls to surround their land.

圈地法并没有让每个农民都满意。当一个城镇圈地时，政府官员来分割田地。获得田地的农民必须向政府官员付款——他们还必须为围绕他们土地的新树篱或石墙付款。

When William's town was enclosed, he had enough money to pay the fees, but other poorer farmers nearby didn't have enough money. They had to sell their farms to richer neighbors. William bought one. Now his farm is twice as large.

当威廉的城镇被圈地时，他有足够的钱支付费用，但附近其他更贫穷的农民没有足够的钱。他们不得不把农场卖给更富有的邻居。威廉买了一个。现在他的农场是原来的两倍大。

After feeding his sheep, William goes to harness his plow horse. It's time for the job that will occupy the rest of his day—sowing his early spring crop of wheat. He hitches his horse to a square wooden machine with two boxes on top and two sharp, hollow wooden blades below.

喂完羊后，威廉去套他的犁马。是时候做占据他一天剩余时间的工作了——播种他的早春小麦作物。他把马套在一个方形木制机器上，上面有两个盒子，下面有两个锋利的、空心的木刀片。

This new invention has made his fields even more productive! His father sowed wheat by walking through the fields, throwing seeds all around him. Some of the seeds sprouted—but many were wasted. Birds ate some. Others baked in the sun before they sprouted.

这个新发明使他的田地更加高产！他的父亲通过在田地里走动，在他周围撒种子来播种小麦。一些种子发芽了——但很多被浪费了。鸟吃了一些。其他的在发芽前被太阳晒干了。

And the plants that did come up didn't come up in orderly rows, so that William's father couldn't walk between the rows of his crop to care for and weed it.

而那些确实长出来的植物没有有序地排成行，所以威廉的父亲不能在他的作物行间走动来照料和除草。

But then a scientist-farmer named Jethro Tull invented the seed drill. When William's horse pulls the seed drill through his field, the two hollow wooden blades will cut narrow, even furrows into the ground.

但是后来一个名叫杰思罗·塔尔的科学家农民发明了播种机。当威廉的马拉着播种机穿过他的田地时，两个空心木刀片会在地面上切出狭窄、均匀的沟槽。

Seeds will drop out of the boxes, called seed hoppers, and fall into the furrows. Protected from the sun and from scavenging birds, fertilized by the rich earth where turnips were planted the year before, William's wheat crop will yield bushels and bushels of grain.

种子会从叫做种子斗的盒子里掉出来，落入沟槽中。受到保护免受太阳和觅食鸟类的伤害，由去年种植萝卜的肥沃土地施肥，威廉的小麦作物将产出一蒲式耳又一蒲式耳的粮食。

He'll sell some of this grain; the rest will feed William's family, his sheep, and his cows. All over England, farmers like William are using these new, scientific methods of farming. Ancient ways of growing crops and tending animals are disappearing. An Agricultural Revolution is taking place!

他会卖掉一些粮食；其余的将喂养威廉的家人、他的羊和他的牛。在整个英格兰，像威廉这样的农民都在使用这些新的、科学的耕作方法。种植作物和照料动物的古老方式正在消失。一场农业革命正在发生！

[原书插图：彼得大帝统治时期的俄国地图]

📚 Chapter Vocabulary / 本章词汇表

历史人物词汇 / Historical Figures

William Penn

/ˈwɪljəm pen/

中文：威廉·佩恩
定义：英国贵格会教徒，宾夕法尼亚州创始人
例句：William Penn founded Pennsylvania as a colony where all people could be equal.

Isaac Newton

/ˈaɪzək ˈnjuːtən/

中文：艾萨克·牛顿
定义：英国物理学家，发现万有引力定律
例句：Isaac Newton discovered the laws of gravity by observing an apple fall.

John Locke

/dʒɒn lɒk/

中文：约翰·洛克
定义：英国哲学家，政治理论家
例句：John Locke wrote about natural rights and government by consent.

Galileo

/ˌɡælɪˈleɪoʊ/

中文：伽利略
定义：意大利天文学家，使用望远镜观察天空
例句：Galileo proved that the earth goes around the sun.

科学与哲学词汇 / Science & Philosophy

scientist

/ˈsaɪəntɪst/

中文：科学家
定义：研究自然现象的学者
例句：The scientist conducted experiments to test his theory.

gravity

/ˈɡrævəti/

中文：重力
定义：使物体相互吸引的力
例句：Gravity pulls all objects toward the center of the earth.

scientific method

/ˌsaɪənˈtɪfɪk ˈmeθəd/

中文：科学方法
定义：通过观察和实验获得知识的系统方法
例句：Scientists use the scientific method to discover natural laws.

theory

/ˈθɪəri/

中文：理论
定义：解释现象的想法或原理
例句：Galileo needed a new theory to explain his observations.

universe

/ˈjuːnɪvɜːrs/

中文：宇宙
定义：包含所有空间和物质的整体
例句：Newton believed that universal laws governed the entire universe.

Enlightenment

/ɪnˈlaɪtənmənt/

中文：启蒙运动
定义：强调理性和科学的思想运动
例句：The Enlightenment changed how people thought about government and science.

政治与社会词汇 / Politics & Society

equal

/ˈiːkwəl/

中文：平等的
定义：具有相同权利和地位
例句：Penn wanted to create a colony where everyone was equal.

laws

/lɔːz/

中文：法律
定义：社会规则和条例
例句：The people wanted the king to pass only the laws they approved.

constitutional monarchy

/ˌkɒnstɪˈtuːʃənəl ˈmɒnərki/

中文：君主立宪制
定义：君主权力受法律限制的政府形式
例句：England became a constitutional monarchy after William and Mary.

natural law

/ˈnætʃərəl lɔː/

中文：自然法
定义：人类天生拥有的权利
例句：Locke believed that natural law gave people rights to life and liberty.

contract

/ˈkɒntrækt/

中文：契约
定义：人们之间的协议
例句：People make a contract to give some power to their rulers.

Parliament

/ˈpɑːrləmənt/

中文：议会
定义：制定法律的立法机构
例句：The king and queen had to obey laws passed by Parliament.

农业革命词汇 / Agricultural Revolution

crops

/krɒps/

中文：农作物
定义：为食物而种植的植物
例句：Farmers learned to rotate different crops to keep soil healthy.

wheat

/wiːt/

中文：小麦
定义：制作面包的谷物
例句：William planted wheat in his field using the new seed drill.

seed drill

/siːd drɪl/

中文：播种机
定义：将种子均匀种植在土壤中的机器
例句：Jethro Tull invented the seed drill to plant seeds in neat rows.

turnips

/ˈtɜːrnɪps/

中文：萝卜
定义：根茎类蔬菜，可以改善土壤
例句：Turnips helped return minerals to the soil for better crops.

breeding

/ˈbriːdɪŋ/

中文：繁殖
定义：选择最好的动物进行交配
例句：William carefully bred his best sheep to get healthy lambs.

Agricultural Revolution

/ˌæɡrɪˈkʌltʃərəl ˌrevəˈluːʃən/

中文：农业革命
定义：农业方法的重大改进
例句：The Agricultural Revolution changed how farmers grew food.

基础生活词汇 / Basic Life Vocabulary

cottage

/ˈkɒtɪdʒ/

中文：小屋
定义：乡村的小房子
例句：The farmer lived in a stone cottage with his family.

breakfast

/ˈbrekfəst/

中文：早餐
定义：一天中的第一餐
例句：Newton ate breakfast of grilled fish and white bread.

lantern

/ˈlæntərn/

中文：灯笼
定义：便携式照明工具
例句：William lit his lantern before going to the barn.

machine

/məˈʃiːn/

中文：机器
定义：帮助工作的设备
例句：Newton thought the universe worked like a machine.

curious

/ˈkjʊəriəs/

中文：好奇的
定义：想要学习和了解
例句：Newton was curious about how the world worked.

predict

/prɪˈdɪkt/

中文：预测
定义：提前知道将要发生的事
例句：Newton could predict exactly how fast an apple would fall.

📊 本章处理统计 / Chapter Processing Statistics

总段落数：49个段落
标注词汇数：78个重点词汇
词汇表收录：36个核心词汇
历史时间标记：1642年、1687年、1690年
涵盖主题：科学革命、启蒙思想、政治理论、农业革命
重点人物：牛顿、洛克、佩恩、伽利略、汤森德
关键概念：万有引力、自然法、君主立宪制、农业改进